The Urabi Revolution and the British Occupation until World War I
(1879-1914)

I. The Urabi Revolution:

Given the creeping financial crises during the reign of Khedive Ismail, foreign intervention started in the form of a ?Debt Fund Committee,? formed in May 1876, which was replaced by the ?Dual Control? in November 1876 and finally the ?European Investigation Committee? in January 1878 which demanded that the khedive give up the land he and his family owned as mortgage for the payment of his now soaring debts. This committee also demanded that the khedive change the ruling system and relinquish his absolute power. The khedive succumbed to most of these demands; on 28 August 1878, he issued the famous decree whereby the Majlis An-Nudhar (cabinet) was formed and endowed with all the mandates of power. He appointed Nubar Pasha to form a cabinet that was later known as the ?mixed cabinet? for including a British and a French minister. The cabinet was not successful, for Nubar favored foreigners over Egyptians. Therefore, discontent was felt by the public on the one hand and by the khedive on the other. Khedive Ismail took advantage of the officers? revolt against Nubar?s cabinet to force the latter's resignation. He formed an all-Egyptian cabinet presided by Sherif Pasha. At this point, the European countries became dissatisfied and decided to get rid of Ismail by requesting the Ottoman Sultan to depose him and appoint his son Tawfik on 26 June 1879 A.D.

Khedive Tawfik gave in to foreign intervention and accepted British and French directives by refusing to ratify the draft constitution that his father had ordered Sherif Pasha to prepare. Sherif Pasha, therefore, resigned. This drew people's attention to Tawfik's tendency toward absolutist power that the public by then distrusted. Gamal Al-Din Al-Afghani advocated ending the foreign intervention and was thus sent into exile to Jeddah upon the khedive?s orders. The khedive also gave orders for forming a new cabinet presided over by Riad Pasha, who was known for his despotic tendencies and pro-foreign sympathies. He mistreated and stifled the budding nationalist movement, leaving the door wide open for foreign intervention via the return of dual British and French supervision. On 2 April 1880, the British-French dominated Caisse de la Dette (Liquidation Committee) was formed which allocated half of the Egyptian revenues to the payment of debts. State institutions were drastically affected by this measure, especially that the army that suffered severe budget cuts. Moreover, the unsympathetic military minister, Othman Refqi Ash-Sharkasi strongly favored the promotion of Turks and Circassians over Egyptians.

Ahmed Urabi emerged as a national hero when, together with Abd al-'Al Helmi and Ali Fahmi, he submitted a statement requesting the dismissal of Othman Refqi on 15 January 1881. In response, Riad Pasha arrested them. At this point, a military revolt broke out; some military troops responded by setting Urabi and his associates free. The officers and their soldiers then went to Abdeen Palace and demanded the dismissal of the minister of war. Khedive Tawfik knew that resistance would be of no avail. He accepted their demands and appointed Mahmoud Sami Al-Baroudi AS minister of war.

But the Urabi revolution was not contained and soon spread. Urabi gave orders to military units to come to Abdeen Square in the morning of 9 September 1881 to present newly formulated demands, not only of the army but also of the nation. They now asked for the dismissal of Riad?s cabinet, the formation of European-style deputies? council, and an increase in the size of the military forces. Tawfik could do nothing but to comply. A new cabinet was formed headed by Sherif Pasha, who soon resigned when the council of deputies insisted on discussing the budget. Britain and France intervened via the ?First Joint Memorandum? to prevent the council from discussing the state budget. A newly appointed cabinet now headed by Mahmoud Sami Al-Barudi included Urabi who was made minister of war, the first native-born Egyptian to assume the post since Mohammed Ali established the Egyptian army.

The Urabists now began to move on reforms. They wanted reforms in the educational system and the national courts of law. Al-Barudi?s cabinet was pre-occupied with establishing a higher administration council and drafting a new constitution whereby the responsibilities of the khedive, the deputies? council and the cabinet were more clearly defined. However, Braitain did not approve this course of events. It called for an international conference in Constantinople in June 1882 to consider ?the Egyptian question? and its developments. Althoug, during the conference, the participating states pledged not to intervene in Egyptian affairs, The British delegate moved that the phrase ?except in case of utmost necessity? be added to the language of the conference declaration. In effect, great Britain seized the opportunity of Urabi?s possession of the Egyptian forts in Alexandria as a ?case of utmost nececessity? and an excuse to intervene. An ultimatum was sent to the Egyptian government by the British fleet leader Admiral Seymour demanding the evacuation of the city's forts within 24 hours. The Egyptian government ignored the ultimatum and the bombardment of Alexandria began. The forts did not resist for long and soon British troops were able to land. Khedive Tawfik and his children retreated to Ras At-Tin palace where they were received by the British commander. Protected by the British, the Khedive gave orders to depose urabi when the latter refused to meet him. But the nation was all the more committed to the nationalist leader. Urabi was able to build strong fortifications at Kafr Ad-Dawar. Led by Tolba Esmat, the Egyptians withstood the British attacks for nearly five weeks. When British troops failed to penetrate the fortresses, they changed their strategy and decided to invade Egypt via the Suez Canal. Urabi had planned to fill in the Canal, but Ferdinand de Lesseps manipulated him into thinking that the canal was neutral territory. The British did not respect such neutrality, and used to canal to launch a military force insland. The Egyptian army suffered a defeat at At-Tal Al-Kabir on 9 September 1882 and Cairo was once again occupied by a foreign European army on 13 September, almost 84 years after the entry of Napoleon's troops.

II. Egypt under British Occupation

On 25 September 1882, Khedive Tawfik arrived at Cairo and was received by the British with military pomp. A military court was established to try Urabi and his associates. On 3 December 1882, He and several other patriotic officers who were his associates were sentenced to death (1 ? 2). The court's ruling was changed to exile to the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) after the officers were stipped of their military rank and their property confiscated. Meanwhile other Egyptian leaders, including Sheikh Mohammed Abdo, were sent into exile while still others were jailed. Thus ended the Urabi revolution and the beginning of the 70-year British occupation.

During the first phase of the British occupation, actual power came to be vested in the hands of the British administrator, Lord Cromer, who held the title agent and consul-general (1883-1907) although he was in effect the real power in the land. This was during the reigns of Tawfik and his son, Abbas Helmi II. The British occupation policy was to appoint British advisers to each of the government ministries, including the minsteries of Finance, Justice, Public Works, Education, but also the army and , the police, which meant, in effect, they acted as ultimate authorities and effectively held all government power. Khedive Tawfik expressed no opposition whatsoever to this policy.

Abbas Helmi, however, tried to resist. He brought Mustafa Kamel, who had emerged as a key nationalist leader, closer to him (1) ? (2) ? (3) ? (4) and allowed Urabi to return from exile. Soon enough, it became clear to the British that Helmi overstepped his authority, and they forced him to succumb to their orders if he wished to retain his crown. This was true especially after Kitchener became the Britsh high commissioner in Egypt. However, when World War I broke out, great Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and they no longer trusted Abbas Helmi II. He was deposed and Hussein Kamel was appointed and given a new title, sultan. When he died in 1917, his brother Fouad succeeded him.